Mandated Governmental Benefits and the Regulations Essay

Benefit Programs and Compensation Administration Lisa Hodges HRM401-Assignment 5-1 Francine Warhman, Professor July 25, 2014 Mandated Governmental Benefits and the Regulations: Employers provide a percentage or portion of wages that are mandated by the government in what they may pay as far as minimal wage is concerned. A lot of employers also decided to offer other benefits to their employees. Employers aren’t mandated to provide the majority of the benefits they do offer but once they have decided to add additional benefits to their compensation package there are multiple laws that have to be followed that are governed by state and federal laws. As stated some of the more common benefits are wages and†¦show more content†¦As difficult times tend to loosen these binds, many employers find that reminding employees of the dollars and cents value of that relationship can provide a little fresh glue (HRO Today - Human Resource Outsourcing Today).† Employees have to consider not looking at just the base salary if there are non-monetary benefits, perks and extras to consider as well. Unions have a significant effect on those who are in unions and those who aren’t in unions in relation to total compensation plans and benefits. Unions in their bargaining for the employees can potentially increase the salaries, increase the benefits as well as encourage or help an organization offer up additional perks. Unions allow for equality within the lower and middle class sector, those who work in more labor intensive careers and those who are limited in the degree they hold by fighting for those workers to ensure some amount of fairness. Unions can impact the salaries of an industry that doesn’t have a union in a particular building because the unions are in the industry the worker would be paid a more because of that even though the union may not be physically in the building. The biggest impact that a union has on a total compensation package is the perks or additional benefits of employees by bargaining for leave with pay, which ends upShow MoreRelatedEconomics And Competitive Strategies And Government P olicies1527 Words   |  7 Pagesprofits. We will explore mergers and merger activity within the industry as well as current and expected government policies and regulations in place to address issues related to externalities. We will also take a look at the effects of global competition on the decisions made by management with regards to change in labor demand, supply, relations, unions, and rules and regulations in the auto industry. 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Congress allow administrators of agencies a broad flexible power to write regulations for organizations in which they are liable (Starling, 2010). Employees can present some challenges to enforcing laws of an organization. Some time salaried government officialsRead MoreLiberalism And Ligalitarianism1318 Words   |  6 Pagesof liberty is attainable and a governmental presence there should be. It is divided into Classical Liberalism, Social Darwinism, Egalitarian Liberalism, Libertarianism, and Libertarian Anarchism. The reason there is much contention within Liberalism as an ideol ogy on its own, is because all of these factions idealize the concept of reaching individual autonomy but do not agree on the road to it. Classical Liberalism holds that the most important aspect of governmental functioning is the maintainingRead MoreStandardsresearch Essay1203 Words   |  5 Pagesof this would be the rules of the road when driving a car. It is understood why we need traffic rules while driving; in same sense for data packets to travel from one computer terminal to other terminals, they should also follow set of rules and regulations. The standards of IEEE 802 help the industry provide advantages such as, interoperability, low product cost, and easy to manage standards. (EEHerald, 2012) Standard organizations As the voice of the U.S. standards and conformity assessment systemRead MoreCase Study: the Jack Welch Era at General Electric999 Words   |  4 PagesPrinciples of Corporate Social Responsibility† set forth in the section of that title in the chapter? GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CSR: 1. Corporations are economic institutions run for profit and its greatest responsibility is to create economic benefits. GE exceeded its responsibility to respond to markets, ultimately generating a surplus of $21 billion in 2001 in pension funds for example. They also contributed to the economy by employing 404,000 at one point in time. 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Fireweed †Trip to Wales! Free Essays

I am called Bill and I live with my auntie and father in London. My mother is dead and my father always said I was never to be sent away as an evacuee. When my father was called up for active service in the army I was left with my auntie. We will write a custom essay sample on Fireweed – Trip to Wales! or any similar topic only for you Order Now We wrote numerous letters to my father but he never replied to any of them. My auntie started to moan and groan about not being able to manage me. So, she decided to send me of as an evacuee, even though it was against my father’s wishes. Auntie wrote to my father and said that I was being sent to another part of the country as an evacuee (not explaining why she sent me). I didn’t even know where I was going, all alone without any money at all, not even a penny for a stamp to write to my father. The station was jam packed with children of all ages. Everyone had a bag, enclosed was a change of clothes and a label attached with an address written in capital letters to make it stand out. Two trains passed before, ours finally arrived. I was stuck in a carriage with mostly girls in uniform. Opposite me sat a great fat woman dressed all in blue, hairy tweed. As the journey progressed we passed station after station, nobody knew where we where going. Until finally the train stopped and everyone disembarked. Darkness was falling and after waiting half an hour another train came and our carriage was joined on the back. By now it was pitch black. Eventually we reached our destination, which turned out to be Wales. Once of loaded everyone was counted and put with a billeting officer who would find us billets in which to stay. One by one each child was chosen and I was last to go. The man took me up a pathway and by this stage I was feeling a tiny bit unwanted, neglected, and rather orphaned. He spoke in welsh to the people and after some persuasion they took me in. I stepped inside into a big farm kitchen where a great log fire was blazing like a forest rapidly burning down. The heat was inconceivable. Served on the tabletop there was bread, cheese and also a cold roast chicken. My stomach felt empty I was famished and the sight of food made the rumbling noises even worse. They asked my age and I replied fifteen. At last I was offered something to eat and then shown to my bedroom. The couple I was staying with were called Mr and Mrs Williams living with them were two shepherds, David and Evan. They hardly spoke a word of English just enough to cope with telling me things. In this welsh valley there were two chapels, no church and no cottages only rows of terraced houses. It was rather poor at that. I spent a lot of time on my bed reading an aged copy of the woman’s weekly, which Mrs Williams stored under the staircase. When the billeting officer came round to see how I was getting on with the Williams, they seemed quite content with me. Feeling rather bored, I finally plucked up the courage and asked if there was a school nearby which I could attend. In the village there was only a primary school that was for juvenile children, but Mrs Williams suggested the grammar school on the other side of the mountains. The only trouble was how would I get there? The only option would be to get the bus. Yet again a problem arose. The bus fair! I had no money. So out came pen and paper to write a letter to my auntie telling her about the grammar school and asking if she could write to father and ask him to send me money for the bus fare. I also asked for my father’s address. I posted the letter in the post office at the back of the village shop I waited for a reply but no letter came. An unusual thing happened one day, Mrs Williams approached me saying that she needed to check my hair for lice. Naturally enough I refused argued and ran out of the house until I came to a dip. I decided to jump but slipped and fell into heavy disinfectant that burnt my mouth and nose. I swallowed several mouthfuls. David and Evan who had been trying to catch me were in stitches of laughter. I was so angry I felt like a raging bull. When I gathered myself together I began to shake all over this made David and Evan very concerned. They took me back to the house and as I stood by the fire they stripped my wet clothes that were laden with disinfectant of me. Afterwards I went to bed. The following morning to my delight Mrs Jones informed me that there was post for me. My heart pounded like the footsteps of an elephant. In actual fact I received two letters! The first opened was from my auntie. Enclosed was my father’s address, a book of stamps and she hoped I would write to him often. The other letter, number two was from my father. He missed me a lot. My father had sent me three whole pounds! This was the biggest amount of money I had ever been given in my life. This overwhelmed me. My first thoughts were to calculate how many bus fares would this pay for. Then I got to thinking about Auntie and home and decided that I would use the money for my train fare back to London. Leaving Mr and Mrs Williams, David, Evan and the terraced houses behind I left for the station. The timetable showed only one train per day at the village. The man at the ticket desk stared at me as though he were looking right through me. When I saw him, I was frightened that he would recognise me so I put plan B into action. I walked to the crossroads. ‘Owestry =15 miles’. I looked down at my worn shoes; there was a station at Owestry. I bought a pair of boots so I could walk to Owestry as I had a funny feeling my old shoes wouldn’t make it. I set off not having the foggiest how long it would take me to walk there. I bought a brown bap from a bakery van, which I met outside the village. When I arrived in Owestry it was late afternoon. I found the station and waited for the train to leave. It left and hour and a half late. Once I reached London I caught the bus home. Suddenly it took a wrong turn! Then I was told that the street no longer stood. I got of the bus as quick as my legs could carry me. I walked to my auntie’s house and everything was grand until a warden stopped me asking where I was going. I was totally bewildered they wouldn’t even let me my own home. Nobody was there to look after me. My auntie was not there any more. I was going to stay put I decided at least until my father came home. I was determined about this. How to cite Fireweed – Trip to Wales!, Papers

History Study Guide free essay sample

What is the difference between republicanism and democracy? Republicanism: rule by property-owning men of talents and virtue. By 1820s and ‘30s, Democracy: The majority should govern was a fundamental maxim in all free gov. ’s. United ordinary Americans in election fever and party organizations, they held together a social order increasingly fragmented by the economic revolution. Promoted political parties that could debate political policies. 3. Who formed the traditional wealthy notables in America? Northern landlords, slave-owning planters, and seaport merchants. 4. What challenges to the traditional political order arose in the Midwest? Social egalitarianism became important to the masses as small farmers and ambitious laborers in the Midwest became sick of being underrepresented and seemingly thought of as servants. 5. What were some of the democratic trends in the North? (1810-ish) Condemnation of property qualifications led to democratic change allowing broad franchise concerning property owning. Between 1818 and 1821, Connecticut, Massachusetts, and NY all wrote new constitutions that reapportioned legislative districts on the basis of popilation and made local governments more democratic by mandating the election—rather than the appointment—of judges and justices of the peace. 6. Summarize the make up and work of the new political â€Å"machines† They were a coherent legislative program. As the push for democracy developed, political parties became inherent, and by the 1820s were highly developed and disciplined organizations managed by pro politicians—often mid-class lawyers and journalists. Like a well-designed textile loom, they were machines that wove the diverse interests of social and economic groups into elaborate tapestry. 7. Who was Martin Van Buren and what did he do? Chief architect of the emerging system of party government. Between 1817 and 1821 he created the first statewide political machine—the Albany Regency. A decade later he organized the first nationwide political party: Jacksonian Democrats. Disagreed with the republican principle that political factions were dangerous to the common wealth and argued the opposite: â€Å" All men of sense know that political parties are inseparable from free government† because they check the gov. ’s ability to use/misuse power. Most importantly, he created the idea of using media (the Albany Argus) to help get people to vote and Patronage: Van Buren and his followers had greater interest in the gov. than notables. He insisted that state legislators follow the dictates of a party meeting, or caucus. 8. Who was Henry Clay and what was his American System? A presidential candidate in the election of 1824 running against Jackson. His American system was an integrated program of national economic development that relied on the 2nd Bank of the US to regulate state banks and advocated the set of tariff revenues to build roads and canals. 9. What was Andrew Jackson’s appeal? He was a war hero from the War of 1812, and had a wave of nationalistic pride that flowed towards him. He also had strong tied to influential families through marriage and his career as an attorney and slave-owning cotton planter. He also had risen from average to hero, which fit the democratic ideal of America, and his image as a â€Å"plain solid republican† attracted voters in all regions. 10. What was the â€Å"corrupt bargain†? Henry Clay had assembled a coalition in Congress that voted Adams into the presidency, and through that, Adams had then appointed him Secretary of State, the traditional stepping stone to the presidency. Clay was then accused of using the power of the executive to thwart the popular will. Jackson supporters likewise claimed that Clay had made a deal with Adams to become sec. f state. Condemning this â€Å"corrupt bargain† they vowed that Clay would never become president. 11. Why did the South call the Tariff of 1828 the â€Å"Tariff of Abominations†? The tariff raised duties on raw materials, textiles, and iron goods. It thus enraged the southern planters because their raw cotton was the world’s cheapest, so they needed no tariff o continue profi ting. It simply cost them $100 milly every year. Planters could either buy higher-cost American textiles and iron goods or buy form Britain. 12. Who liked and who didn’t like the American System and why? Manufacturers, entrepreneurs, and market-oriented farmers in the northeast and Midwest welcomed the policy. However, southern planters disliked the system because the opposed protective tariffs, and smallholding farmers despised it because they feared powerful banks. Jeffy, on his death bed, condemned Adams for promoting a more powerful central government. Other politicians objected to the system on constitutional bounds; they didn’t like that federal money, as opposed to state money, went into transportation infrastructure. 13. How was Adams politically vulnerable? His political style was out of date. The last notable to serve in the white house, he acted the part; aloof, moralistic, paternalistic. He lost popularity by disvaluing the masses and ignoring them, looking for support only from elected officials. 14. What various interest groups did Van Buren put together for the election of 1828? He united northern farmers and artisans (the plain Republicans of the North) with the southern slave-owners and smallholding farmers who had voted for the Virginia Dynasty. John C. Calhoun, Jackson’s vice-presidential running mate, brought his SC allies into the group as Van Buren’s group as well. He also proposed the state politician’s use of newspapers for campaigns, and it became massive. In NY 50 newspapers declared their support for Jackson on the same day. 15. Read Republican Majesty (p. 331) and summarize the scene at Jackson’s inaugural There was a mutual respect between Jackson and his people. They remained silent at will in honor of him to allow him to take oath, and he repeatedly bowed to them, demonstrating his democratic ideals of equal rights and popular rule; the people ruled him as much as he ruled them. 16. What was the spoils system? A system that used patronage to gain political support. Jackson dispensed and rotated government jobs both to gain support for himself and his friends/political programs, and also to encourage political activity among the masses, as any number of educated regular citizens could have the opportunity to be a part. 17. What was South Carolina’s Ordinance of Nullification and what was its connection to the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions? The state of SC declared the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 null and void, and forbade collection of them after Feb 1, 1833, threatening secession if the federal bureaucrats tried to collect them. It is similar to the resolutions of Kentucky and Virginia in 1798, when they too declared state power over federal power to the Alien and Sedition Acts, outlawing them in the respective states. 18. Summarize Jackson’s resolution of the dilemma? Jackson DID want to limit the reach of the national government, just like SC, Virginia, and KY, but he renounced the radical redefinition of the constitution suggested by VP John Calhoun. He declared that nullification violated the Constitution and was unauthorized by its spirit and destructive of the great object for which it was formed. Disunion by armed force is treason, he warned. He then passed a Force Bill in early 1833 that authorized the prez to use military force to compel SC to obey national laws. He also won passage to a Tariff Act that was different than the Tariff of Abominations because it gradually reduced rates and would eventually return to normal. 19. What role did the Bank of the U. S. play to prevent inflation? It collected notes regularly from state banks and in return gave out specie, reducing the amount of paper money that states printed, thus reducing the risk of inflation. 0. Who opposed the Bank? Average citizens didn’t necessarily oppose it, but they feared an institution powerful enough to shut down state banks and leave them with worthless notes. NY bankers opposed it because they didn’t like the financial power the bank and its leader, Nicholas Biddle, had gained. Some state bankers wanted the specie to be owned by the federal government to be deposited in their institutions rather than in the 2nd Bank. 21. How did Jackson use constitutional arguments, revolutionary rhetoric and patriotism to justify his veto of the Bank Bill? He declared Congress had no constitutional right to charter a national bank, which was subversive of the rights of the States. † Rhetoric: attacked the bank as dangerous to the liberties of the people. Evoked patriotism by pointing out that British aristocrats owned much of the banks stock; any such powerful institution should be â€Å"purely American,† he declared. 22. What was Jackson’s next move on the Bank and what was the response from his opponents in Congress? His attack on the bank carried him to reelection in 1832. Jackson hired Roger B. Taney, a strong opponent of corporate privilege, to withdraw the government’s gold and silver form the 2nd Bank and deposit it in state institutions. Pissed Congress off because it was basically illegal for Jackson to do so, but he claimed his reelection showed the people wanted to wage a â€Å"bank war. † He ended up fighting Congress well enough to not allow the bank to be re-chartered after it expired in 1836. Basically Jackson eliminated both the national banking system and the American System of protective tariffs and internal improvements favored by JQ Adams and H Clay. The federal government thus lost power and purview. 3. What were the provisions of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 and what was the Indian response? Granted money and land in present-day Oklahoma and Kansas to Native Americans who would give up their ancestral holdings. Many Indian peoples refused to leave their land, but were forced by threats and even military action, such as what was used against Chief Black Hawk and his Sauk and Fox followers. 24. What were John Marshall’s opinions regarding the Cherokee? He claimed they were not an independent nation, declaring that Indian peoples were domestic dependent nations. 25. What was the Trail of Tears?

Subcultural Theories Essay Example

Subcultural Theories Paper Consistently in the news we hear of the rise of certain subcultures, the rise of the hoodie culture in teens for example. However, what exactly is a subculture, and are they really linked to crime and deviant behaviour as much as society believes? A subculture can be defined as a group of people who have their own culture, with their own norms and values, which differentiates from the larger culture to what they belong. Many sociologists have researched into the links between subcultures and crime and deviance, to try and establish whether those involved are more likely to commit criminal behaviour, as official statistics suggest. In the early 20th Century, a dramatic social change was taking place in Chicago, and in response to this emerged the University of Chicago, the first parent-school of subcultural sociology. These Chicago sociologists were determined to appreciate the wide variety of cultures and lifestyles prevalent in Chicago at the time, due to the wide influx of migrants from all over Europe and Southern USA. Through their experimental use of, what we now call, participant observation, they wished to observe and note down the sheer variety and dynamism of urban life. Thanks to this integral research, two important studies were released, Fredric Thrashers The Gang(1927) and Whytes Street Corner Society(1943). These two research pieces paved the way for future sociologists to investigate into deviant groups, as it was already established that these groups in society had clear norms and values of their own that justified their different behaviour. Late on in the 1930s, Robert Merton (1938), tried to find how deviance fitted in within a functionalist framework, however, Merton himself was not a functionalist. We will write a custom essay sample on Subcultural Theories specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Subcultural Theories specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Subcultural Theories specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer He decided that crime and deviance were the proof that the individual did not fit into societys accepted goals and did not agree with the socially approved means of obtaining those goals. He identified this as strain between the individual and society, and discovered that the greater the strain, the greater the chance of the individual being either deviant or criminal in their behaviour. Merton argued that all societies, whether in Britain or in the jungles of Africa, set their members certain goals and provided them with socially approved ways to achieve this goal. Merton considered the fact that not all the individuals in a society share the same goals; he pointed out that in a stratified society the goals were linked to a persons position in the social structure. Therefore, those lower down the social ladder, had restricted goals. He noted that the system worked well as long as the majority of the population had a reasonable chance of achieving their goals. However, if the majority of the population were unable to achieve their goals, they would become disenchanted with society, and sought out alternative, often deviant, ways of behaving. Merton used Durkheims term anomie to describe this situation. One example of Mertons theory in practice in todays society, is the notion of The American Dream. The American Dream, is a notion held by many that through hard work and material prosperity, residents of the United States will be able to achieve their goals in life; for some this is the ability to achieve more material prosperity than would be possible in their country of origin; the chance for their children to get an education; or the freedom of life without class, gender, racial or religious discriminations. However, for many, this dream is just that, an unachievable dream, and when they realise this, many turn to illegitimate means of money making to help them survive in the materialistic society that is America. Merton identified five different forms of behaviour which could be understood as a strain between goals and means. The first is conformity, in which the individual continues to adhere to both the goals and means, despite the limited likelihood of success, such as the many office workers in New York City, who are living on the poverty line. Another form identified by Merton is Innovation, where the individual accepts the goals of society, but uses different ways to achieve these goals, so the outcome may result in the person being involved in deviant activity, such as soft drug dealers, who long for the materialistic possessions, yet instead of working legitimately, they get their money through deviant behaviour. The third form is Ritualism, this is when the means are used by the individual, but sight of the actual goal is lost, for example a traffic warden, who is not bothered about earning lots of money, but blindly enforces the law without looking at the nature of justice. Ritualism, is the fourth form, in which the individual rejects both the goals and means and society, this is most likely to be a person who is dependant upon drugs and alcohol. The final form of strain can be labelled as Rebellion, where both the socially sanctioned goals and means are rejected and different ones substituted; these individuals are often religious extremists, such as Suicide Bombers. Although Mertons idea of strain has concrete examples in society, many sociologists have criticised his approach to subcultural crime and deviance as being too simple. They say that there are some people who border on the lines between categories. Also, some believe it is too ethnocentric. Valier (2001), criticised Merton for his stress on the existence of common goals in society. Valier argues that instead of such great social consensus, there are in fact a variety of goals that people strive to attain at any one time. Having been heavily influenced by Mertons work Cloward and Ohlin (1960) carried out their own research, entitled the Illegitimate Opportunity Structure. They argued that Merton had failed to appreciate that there was a parallel opportunity structure to the legal one; the Illegitimate Opportunity Structure. This, to them, meant that many subcultures prevalent in society, had found that a career was available, in which illegal means were used to obtain societys goals. According to Cloward and Ohlin, the Illegitimate Opportunity Structure had three possible adaptations or subcultures. The first of these was Criminal, which states that if there is a thriving local criminal subculture, there will be successful role models in that area, therefore young offenders can work their way up the ladder in the criminal hierarchy. Conflict was identified as the second subculture, and it was noted that this occurred when there was no local criminal subculture to provide career opportunities. Groups and individuals brought up in this environment often turn to violence, usually against other similar groups, for example gang turf wars, where gangs use violence to determine who owns which patch. The final adaption is known as Retreatist, and this tends to be an individual response which occurs when the individual has no exposure or opportunity to be involved with the other two subcultures of Criminal and Conflict. The result therefore, is a retreat into alcoholism or drug dependency. A good example of Cloward and Ohlins theories into these subcultures is Dick Hobbs book Bad Buisness (1998), in which Hobbs interviewed successful criminals and demonstrated how careers in crime are possible, given the right connection and exposure to this subculture. This explanation of criminal deviance is useful and, alongside Hobbs work, shows that for some people crime can be a career choice. But the approach is not completely correct, it shares similar weaknesses to Mertons Strain Theory. One criticism which is shared with Merton, is the categorisation of individuals; there are many people who may be sat on the border of two categories, and also, it is difficult to except the three categories, as there is no reference to people who break free from this subculture. Furthermore, many argue that both theories fail to recognise female deviance, as this often follows a slightly different pattern and is not as easy to define. Albert Cohen (1955) drew upon both Mertons ideas of strain and also on the ethnographic ideas (form of observational research) of the Chicago School of Sociology. He was particularly interested in why crime was carried out, and he discovered it was more for the thrill of the act, rather than for the money involved. Many modern day sociologists believe this is as true today as it was in the 1950s, for example, joyriding has increased, yet the cars are burnt, not sold on, so there is not an economic reasoning behind the crime, it must just be committed for the thrill. Cohen believed that lower-class boys wanted to excel middle-class values and aspirations, but lacked the means to obtain this success. This lead to a sense of personal failure and inadequacy, which Cohen called status frustration. This resulted in the rejection of the acceptable behaviour in which they could not succeed. He suggests that school therefore, is the key area for the playing out of this drama, as lower-class children are much more likely to fail and feel humiliated in the classroom. To counteract this and gain status, they invert traditional values and behave badly, engaging in a variety of antisocial behaviour. They may often resort to being the class-clown, who fools around and disrupts the lesson, as they feel this is the way to climb up the social ladder. However, many have criticised Cohen, least of all Feminist Sociologists. As with Cloward and Ohlin and Merton, there is no discussion of female deviancy, his study is solely based on males. Also, Cohen failed to prove that school really was the environment in which success and failure are demonstrated mainly. But the major criticism of his work is that he assumes the young delinquents must be brilliant sociologists to work out that they are lower-class, to work out the middle-class values and then invert them to gain status. Many believe Cohen is correct, he has just missed the fundamental point that these individuals are children. Another subcultural sociologist was writing in the 1950s, Walter Miller. He developed an approach to crime, which expanded on Cohens class based theory. Miller suggested the deviancy was linked to the culture of the lower-class males; suggesting that they have six focal concerns which are likely to lead them to delinquency. The first was smartness; that the individual must look good and also be witty with a sharp repartee. Also, the concern of trouble; the culture of I dont go looking for trouble it finds me, its never their fault, they didnt start it. Focal concern number three links to Cohen and his discovery that crime was committed for the thrill, yet Miller says that lower-class males feel it is important to search out these thrills and so calls this concern excitement. Toughness is the fourth concern, the individuals must not only demonstrate this, but they must be physically stronger than the others. The fifth concern is Autonomy, it is important for the individual not to be pushed around by the others in the gang. And the final focal concern outlined by Miller is Fate; individuals have little chance to overcome the fate that awaits them, the fate of a deviant career for example. Therefore, according to Miller, young lower-class males become delinquents due to the implicit values of their subculture. Yet, Miller provides little evidence of these specific middle class values. Box (1981) highlights that the values could equally apply to males right across the class structure. Also, female deviancy is not considered again! One consistent criticism of subcultural theories is that there is little evidence to demonstrate this distinct set of antisocial values. Even if there are subcultures, why would they respond to certain middle or working class values? Matza bonded these criticisms together to attack subcultural theory. He argued that instead of subcultures having different values, we all share a set of subterranean (hidden) values. The key thing is that most people control these deviant desires, they may rarely emerge, say at the office party, yet when they do we use techniques of neutralisation to provide justification for our deviant actions. Some examples include the denial of responsibility- it wasnt me, it was the alcohol; or denial of injury- victim wasnt hurt, often used when justifying stealing from a company rather than individual. Matza is therefore arguing that the difference between a persistent offender and a law-abiding citizen is simply the frequency and environment in which our subterranean values appear to the public. Matzas critique of subculture is deemed by many as devastating. He is saying that all of us share deviant subcultural values and that it is not true that there are distinctive groups with their own values, different from the rest of us. Carl Nightingale took yet another approach towards deviance, and his subcultural theory does not focus on crime, but that black youth are marginalised, often driving them towards deviance; the Paradox of Inclusion. For his book On The Edge(1993), Nightingale studied young Black youth in inner-city Philadelphia. He discovered that subculture derives from the desire to be part of mainstream US culture, that is to say that subcultures occur due to the rejection and marginalising of youth by society. In America, Black children avidly consume US culture by watching television with its emphasis on consumerism and the success of violence, yet at the same time they are excluded economically, racially and politically from participating in the mainstream society they idolise. This is seen in England through the Chav culture. Those individuals dress how they see on television in music videos, so they can fit in, yet by doing so, they ironically become individuals which society fears, and therefore marginalises. These individuals begin to identify themselves through acquiring clothing with high-status labels, such as Nike or Adidas. Once again, drawing upon Mertons ideas, the subculture reflects the belief that it is not so much how these high status goods are obtained rather the fact of possessing them, which is often through crime and violence. This links with Phillip Bourgois study of El Barrio. He looks at the lives of drug dealers and criminals in the deprived areas of New York. He wanted to study the underground econmy, everything ranging from babysitting to hard drug dealing, in this marginalised society. He realised they were marginalised for many reasons, particularly racial and due to their high poverty lifestyles, society excluded them. He discovered that the severe abuse of drugs and alcohol prevalent in El Barrio, was due to the marginalisation and alienation from mainstream American Society, which many residents encountered daily. The change of drugs and scale which Bougois monitored was widespread and dramatic, with everyone in the society involved. However, although they did not share the same means as mainstream America, they shared the same goals, as in to achieve the American Dream. Bourgois noted that the legitimate economy mirrors the illegitimate economy, there is a hierarchal system in place, which all obey, just like legitimately. He decided that the pressure of the American Dream is what caused many to deviate into criminal activity, as this way they could obtain the needed money to pursue their dream. His main finding was that crime makes economic sense, why would these people surviving on the bread line want to work in an office, earning the minimum wage, when they can earn ten times as much on their own doorstep? And this attitude is shared all over the world by many living in poverty. Since 1998, there has been the introduction of ASBOs; Anti-Social Behaviour Orders, but there has been much dispute as to whether these actually prevent deviant behaviour. Many believe that by labelling delinquent youths as Anti-Social, they accept this label and it turns into a self-fulfilling prophecy, where the youngster feels they must live up to this reputation. Others believe that ASBOs are seen as labels to be had and are worthy of respect. Many of the approaches outlined above seek to explain deviant behaviour through rational reasoning as to why subcultures have developed. Some recent postmodern approaches reject this explanation for behaviour. Katz (1988), argues young men get drawn into crime, because it is seductive and thrilling, echoing Cohen. This is not dissimilar to Lyng (1990). He said that young males like taking risks and engaging in what he refers to as edgework; going to the extremities of acceptable behaviour and flirting with danger. Using the example of neo-tribes, Maffesoli (1996) introduced a postmodernist innovation in understanding subculture. He was unhappy with the idea that the idea of subculture had been transformed from a concept based on values, more into a concept of consensus. He believed subcultures should be though of in terms of fluidity, occasional gatherings and dispersal. Neo-tribes then referred to states of mind, that were flexible, open and changing. Deviant values are less important than a stress on consumption, suitably fashionable behaviour and individual identity that can change rapidly. As previously noted, subcultural theories are very masculine orientated. However, as Collison (1996) points out, sociologist may well have missed the significance of studying male behaviour in such detail. He said that in order to explain male offending behaviour, it is important to explain the nature of being male in our society and the links masculinity itself has to crime. Collinsons work on masculinity links closely to that of Connell (1995), who sees the existence of a hegemonic masculinity, in which males both conspire with and aspire to, and believes this drives them to deviance. This emphasis on hegemonic masculinity is very similar to Millers earlier works on lower-class values. However, Winlow argues these values are most obvious when the economic social structure is changing. He suggests that the traditional working class values fitted alongside physical work, which is now in decline, so they are restless and desperate to prove their masculinity. These values have dispersed due to the rise of office work. He further suggests that these problems greatly affect young males who are out of employment. So, to conclude, there are many different approaches to explaining subculture and its place in society, all of which are as valid today as they were when the original research was carried out, from studying the British Street Corner Groups in the early 1900s, to the participant observation of crack dealers in New York City, all of these theories are still relevant to the gang culture of today. However, looking at the theories, the one society can relate to most is Metza and Subterranean Values. This is very obviously prevalent in society today, from photocopying body parts at the office party and blaming it on the alcohol, to the men who get cleared of rape, claiming the victim isnt a victim as she was wearing clothes which led the man on. Whether subcultures do or do not share common social values will be disputed for many years, yet Mazas techniques of neutralization will be evident in society always, therefore, I believe I identify most with this theory, as it seeks to explain natural patterns of behaviour, not seek to infiltrate gang culture and lifestyles. Having said this, I am particularly interested in Bourgoiss El Barrio research as I agree with him and the dealers, crime makes economic sense, why work a nine-to-five for minimum wage, when you can earn enough money on your doorstep? Perhaps, if I had access to a criminal subculture, I would become involved as Cloward and Ohlin said, yet unfortunately my future is even bleaker according to them, a retreatist lifestyle involving drugs or alcohol, good job I believe Merton and feel I am a conformist, adhering to both the socially accepted goals and means. Subcultural theories Essay Example Subcultural theories Essay Subcultural theories examine the behaviour and actions of various groups within society groups with either reject or depart from the traditional norms and views of the majority. These groups are referred to as subcultures, and subcultural theories attempt to explain why these groups most are concerned with youth gangs and gang delinquency engage in deviant acts. Subcultural theories originated in America and in particular the Univeristy of Chicago Sociology Department. Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay at the University studied juvenile crime rates in Chicago and they divided the city up into a series of concentric rings. They then calculated the delinquency rates of in each ring finding that areas with the highest crime rates were those in the centre of the city, with the rates diminishing outwards from the centre. They noted that delinquency was lower in areas of high economic status while it was seen to be high in areas of low economic status. Their studies also found that these findings remained constant over time, notwithstanding successive changes in the nativity and nationality composition of the population1. They therefore came to the conclusion that delinquency-producing factors are inherent in the community2 and are culturally transmitted. They said that what is transmitted is social disorganisation This term referred to an inconsistency of values, attitudes and standards of behaviour. In areas of high economic status, ie. the middle class, there is consistency and uniformity of attitudes and morals, whereas in low economic status areas there is an absence of common values with competing attitudes and standards prevalent instead. Shaw and Mckay state that in the latter situation delinquency has developed as a powerful competing way of life3. There are, therefore, rival values, conventional and non-conventional, and gang and juvenile delinquency is a symptom of this conflict. Another theory to emerge from Chicago is Edwin Sutherland and Donald Cressey s differential association theory. Although not strictly a subcultural theory in the strict definition of the term this theory is so closely related so as to be worthy of consideration. Differential association says that criminal and deviant behaviour is learnt behaviour in the same sense as other behaviour is learnt. We will write a custom essay sample on Subcultural theories specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Subcultural theories specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Subcultural theories specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer It tells us that a person is likely to become a criminal if they are exposed to an excess of definitions favourable to violation of the law over definitions unfavourable to violation of the law4. The effect which these associations have may vary in frequency, duration, priority and intensity. In this process of differential association, Sutherland and Cressey stress that the strongest part of the learning occurs within intimate personal groups and we can see that they are stressing the importance of the peer group, family and friends in the learning process. They also make the point that all the associations which one has in life could be quantified and a mathematical formula reached which would enable us to find out how a person will turn out. Sutherland and Cressey acknowledge however that such a weighing up of associations would be extremely difficult5. Albert Cohens main interest lay in explaining juvenile delinquency, and his major work Delinquent Boys, published in 1955, claimed that a delinquent subculture exists which could explain crime amongst juveniles. He said that when we look at the delinquent subculture we see that it is non-utilitarian, malicious and negativistic6. This, he explains, is because the subculture takes its norms from the wider culture and turns them upside down. Therefore, what the delinquent does is right according to the standards of the subculture because it is wrong according to the standards of wider society. But why do juveniles form or join these subcultures in the first place? Cohen argued that certain sections of youth feel rejected by society and the reason for this is to be found in the great tension and strain in handling the paradoxical many-are-called-but-few-are-chosen nature of schooling7. Those who cannot handle the strain suffer status deprivation and some will seek the collective delinquent subculture as the solution. Mertons8 anomie (strain) theory aims to integrate explanations of a variety of behaviours into a coherent pattern, by seeing them as related ways of coping with the problems by living in modern societies. This theory asserts that where there is a gap between what people want and what they can legitimately achieve, they experience strain. They can adapt to this strain in any of five ways. Conformists do not experience such a gap and are thus not under strain. Innovators adapt to the strain by finding alternative, usually illegitimate, methods of obtaining the goods they want. Ritualists turn adherence of social norms into a goal itself and often join movements that place moral rules above more individual goals, e. g. religious groups. Retreatists see neither the goals nor the means as valid and minimise their participation in normal society. Drug users, dropouts, hippies and priests would all be examples. Rebels are those who declare the social structure illegitimate, and seek to destroy it. A theory of much the same model9 as Cohens is put forward by Cloward and Ohlin. They accepted a similar model of delinquency causation as him but believed that he placed too much emphasis on the school. Cloward and Ohlin draw their theory in part from both Mertons anomie theory and from differential association. They say that crime occurs because of blocked and limited legitimate opportunities and that what type of criminal behaviour results depends on the individuals peer group or gang. They concluded that three types of subculture can result: criminal, conflict or retreatist. Again the importance of the group is emphasised as Cloward and Ohlin use differential association to argue that criminal behaviour is learnt from group relationships. When Lemet (1951) and Becker (1963) first promoted labelling theory, they both argued that no acts are intrinsically deviant; deviance is a moral judgement which is used to label particular acts and those who commit them. Thus social groups can create deviance by making rules whose infraction constitutes deviance, and by applying those rules to particular people and labelling them as outsiders10. The principal strength of these various theories appears to be their superior explanation of juvenile delinquency and crime, such as vandalism, joy-riding and pointless theft, which mainly occurs within juvenile gangs or subcultures. Much of the other criminological explanations of crime largely ignore this group reaction and concentrate solely on the individual. Mertons anomie theory is especially guilty of this and indeed Cohen criticised it for being inapplicable to both juvenile and group crime11. Similarly the biological positivists such as Eysenck look at the cause of crime as purely an individual matter without much concern for group crime. Shaw and McKays theory placed a great emphasis on juvenile crime and delinquency being a group activity delinquency is essentially group behaviour12 and they attempt to explain why people become delinquent and join gangs. They say that in areas of low economic status delinquency is a powerful rival way of life which derives its impelling force in the boys life from the fact that it provides a means of securing economic gain, prestige, and other human satisfactions and is embodied in delinquent groups and criminal organizations, many of which have great influence, power and prestige13. Children are exposed to these values as they are transmitted and passed down from generation to generation as are the techniques for committing offences. In discussing this, Shaw and Mckay give examples of the types of offences whose techniques are passed down, such as jack-rolling and shoplifting crimes which lack a purpose. They strongly emphasise the role of the peer group and they say that in the context of this group crime is regarded as normal, as from the viewpoint of the delinquents immediate social world (the subculture) and the norms associated with that world, he is not necessarily disorganised, maladjusted or antisocial but may be highly organized and well-adjusted14. Cohens explanation of juveniles turning to crime centred upon their frustration at being unable to achieve middle class success and, more specifically, success at school. He says that in the resulting delinquent subculture, delinquents respond as a group and that this response has been worked out by their group over many years. This response is to invert the norms of wider society with the result that the subcultures activities are, as mentioned earlier, non-utilitarian, malicious and negativistic. Indeed, these descriptions of the groups activities explain crimes such as shoplifting (which is non-utilitarian) and vandalism (which is malicious) rather well. Cohen himself says that much gang stealing has no motivation and is in fact stealing for the hell of it and is a valued activity to which attaches glory, prowess and profound satisfaction15 rather than as an activity for gain and profit. Crime is committed because delinquent groups are out for fun and short-term hedonism plays an important part in Cohens account of juvenile group crime. Again, like Shaw and McKay, Cohens theory emphasises the point that from the perspective of the gang themselves, their conduct could be regarded as meaningful. Although subcultural theories give a good explanation of juvenile delinquency and juvenile group crime, the fundamental weakness of these theories stems from precisely this: an overemphasis on the importance of a gang response to crimes. It places far too much emphasis on a group response rather than on individual responses. Notwithstanding the fact that most juvenile crime such as joy-riding is conducted by gangs, these theories fail to explain why crimes such as rape and murder, which are very individualistic, occur. Most of the subcultural theorists, including Shaw and McKay, Cloward and Ohlin, and especially Sutherland and Cressey, stress the significance of the peer group and the associations which one has in life. Sutherland and Cressey say that the values which encourage people to commit crime are learnt along with the techniques to commit crime. But how can this theory explain the crime of passion in which the husband murders his wife when finding her in bed with another man? He may have had no criminal associations in the past, but merely snaps. Compulsive crimes such as this are better explained by biological impulses rather by differential association or subcultural theories. It was mentioned earlier that Sutherland and Cressey stated that all the associations which one has in life can be quantified in order to find out whether a person will become deviant or not. However, as with the example above, this does not account for the honest, hard working businessman who, when his business starts doing badly is forced to commit fraud and other crimes to try and save it. It could certainly be said that he has learnt the techniques through differential association, but where and how does he learn the deviant values and motives? Stemming from this overemphasis on gang/group crime is the very closely related flaw that these theories are overly deterministic. Everyone is seen as being very heavily influenced by their peer group and little consideration is given to individual choice or free will. If, taking Shaw and McKays example, you fall within the centre circle of Chicago you are seen by them as having very little choice as to whether or not you end up in a delinquent gang. The theory of David Matza addresses in part this weakness of subcultural theories. He pointed out that these theories predicted far too much crime and delinquency16. His main theme concerned drift as he considered that delinquents drift in and out of delinquency without committing to either. He also emphasised freedom of choice and free will as important, and by doing so he answers many of the criticisms of the overly deterministic theories of Cohen, Shaw and McKay et al. The role of the subculture or gang is still important as they make such activity more likely by actively promoting it but this does not make deviant behaviour mandatory. The individual still has freedom to choose whether to commit a crime or not and to do so for personal reasons rather that as a group requirement17. The major criticisms of anomie theory are that while it outlines different possibilities for adaption, it does not explain why individuals adopt one or other forms of adaption- retreatism, ritualism etc. It also says nothing about the causes of social inequality and conflict, which is strange given the theorys recognition that inequality and conflict exists is precisely the point at which it has an advantage over functionalism. Labelling theory does not provide an account for why some social groups have the power to label and others do not, nor of why certain acts are declared illegal and others are not. In Beckers view, the theory does not, and need not, explain why some groups or individuals have the power to label, he was only concerned to show that labelling occurs and the consequences of it. There is no consensus about how far how-far a group has to go in having specialised values and norms, or stable membership, or regular activities, to qualify as a sub-culture; nor about the precise meaning of descriptions such as deviant subculture. It is also interesting to note that some studies of subcultures refer back to anomie theory and its concept of adaptation; they thus have the same weaknesses as anomie theory. It can be said that from the principal strength of subcultural theories stems its main weakness. The main theories examined provide us with a through examination of crimes largely ignored by anomie and biological theories namely juvenile crime. In their consideration of the consideration of the main causes of juvenile crime, the role and influence of the gang or group response render the application of these theories to explaining individual crimes, such as murder, irrelevant. Related to this is the fact that these theories also suffer from the flaw of being excessively deterministic. Nevertheless, as an account of why subcultures exist and why juveniles within these subcultures engage in deviant acts, the theories examined succeed this objective. Regardless of whichever theory one tends to adopt for a particular given, each has its own strengths and subsequent weaknesses. In this regard, and despite these problems, the concept of sub-culture amongst young men and women remains seductive. Subcultural theories Essay Example Subcultural theories Paper Subcultural theories of youth civilization owe much to the pioneering work of the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies ( CCCS ) during the 1970s and early 1980s. The CCCS make usage of the term subculture from US sociologists at Chicago University, and applied it to visually typical post-World War II British working category young person civilizations, such as teddy male childs, mods, and bootboyss. Sociologists today employ three primary theoretical positions: the functionalist position, the Marxist position and the post-modernist position. These positions offer sociologists theoretical paradigms for explicating how society influences people, and frailty versa. Each position unambiguously conceptualises society, societal forces, and human behavior. Functionalism Functionalism is the oldest, and still the dominant, theoretical position in sociology and many other societal scientific disciplines. Harmonizing to the functionalist position each facet of society is mutualist and contributes to society s operation as a whole. Functionalists see society as holding a construction, with cardinal establishments executing critical maps, and roles directing people in how to act. They identify the maps of each portion of the construction. For illustration, the province, or the authorities, provides instruction for the kids of the household, which in bend wages revenue enhancements on which the province depends to maintain itself running. This means that the household is dependent upon the school to assist kids turn up to hold good occupations so that they can raise and back up their ain households. In the procedure, the kids become observant, taxpaying citizens, who in bend support the province. If the procedure succeeds the parts of society green goods order, stableness and productiveness. On the other manus, if the procedure does non travel good, the parts of society so must accommodate to recapture a new order, stableness, and productiveness. For illustration, as we are soon sing, during a fiscal recession with its high rates of unemployment and rising prices, net income and salary decrease, societal plans are trimmed or cut. Families tighten their budgets while employers offer fewer concern plans, and a new societal order, stableness and productiveness occur. Functionalists believe that society is held together by societal consensus, or coherence, in which society members agree upon, and work together to accomplish, what is best for society as a whole. Emile Durkheim suggested that societal consensus takes one of two signifiers: Mechanical Solidarity: This is a signifier of societal coherence that arises when people in a society maintain similar values and beliefs and prosecute in similar types of work. Mechanical solidarity most commonly occurs in traditional, simple societies such as those in which everyone herds cowss or farms. Amish society exemplifies mechanical solidarity. Organic Solidarity: This is a signifier of societal coherence that arises when people in a society are mutualist, but hold to changing values and beliefs and engage in changing types of work. Organic solidarity most commonly occurs in industrialized, complex societies such as those in big American metropoliss like New York in the 2000s. We will write a custom essay sample on Subcultural theories specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Subcultural theories specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Subcultural theories specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Leading functionalists include Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons. Robert Merton ( 1910 ) , who was a functionalist as good, developed his theory of aberrance which is derived from Durkheim s thought of anomy. It is cardinal in explicating how internal alterations can happen in a system. For Merton, anomy means a discontinuity between cultural ends and that accepted methods available for making them. Merton ( 1968 ) has proposed a figure of of import differentiations to avoid possible failings and clear up ambiguities in the basic functionalist position. First, he distinguishes between manifest and latent maps. Manifest maps are recognised, knowing and obvious, while latent maps are unrecognized, unwilled, and therefore non obvious. Merton used the illustration of the Hopi rain dance to demo that sometimes an person s apprehension of their motivation for an action may non to the full explicate why that action continues to be performed. Sometimes actions fulfil a map of which the hist rion is incognizant, and this is the latent map of an action. Second, he distinguishes between effects which are positively functional for a society, those which are dysfunctional for the society, and those which neither. Third, he besides distinguishes between degrees of society, that is, the specific societal units for which regularised forms of behavior are functional or dysfunctional. Finally, he maintains that the peculiar societal constructions which satisfy functional demands of society are non indispensable, but that structural options may be which can besides fulfill the same functional demands. Merton expanded on the thought that anomy is the disaffection of the ego from society due to conflicting norms and involvements by depicting five different types of actions that occur when personal ends and legitimate agencies come into struggle with each other. Conformity is the typical successful hardworking individual who both accepts the ends of the society and has the agencies for obtaining those ends. This is an illustration of non-anomie. Invention refers to the chase of culturally approved ends by disapproved, including illegal agencies, in other words, they must utilize invention in order to accomplish cultural ends. ( Example: Drug trader who sells drugs to back up a household. ) Ritualism refers to overly stiff conformance to approved ends and agencies, even to the disregard of the existent consequences ; inefficient administrative officials who adhere stiffly to the regulations are the authoritative illustration of ritualism. The individual who ignores and rejects the agencies and the ends of the society is said to be withdrawing from society. ( For illustration a drug nut who has stopped caring about the societal ends and chooses a drug induced world in favor of the socially recognized life style. ) Finally, there is a 5th type of version which is that of rebellion which refers to the rejection of sanctioned ends and agencies in favour of new 1s. Functionalism has received unfavorable judgment as it has a conservative prejudice. Critics claim that the position justifies the position quo and complacence on the portion of society s members. Functionalism does non promote people to take an active function in altering their societal environment, even when such alteration may profit them. Alternatively, functionalism sees active societal alteration as unwanted because the assorted parts of society will counterbalance of course for any jobs that may originate. Marxist NEW-SUBCULTURAL THEORY Marx argues that societies result from worlds acquiring together to bring forth nutrient. The forces of production form societal relationships. In Marxist theory, category is the most of import societal group in the capitalist society and the city manager societal constellations are category civilizations. The categories are organised depending on the manner of production that determine a concrete set of dealingss of production: the capitalists ( middle class ) and the workers ( labor ) . These categories are all the clip in struggle and dialogue because one of them is dominant and the other is low-level. This struggle position originated chiefly out of Karl Marx s Hagiographas on category battles and it presents society in a different visible radiation than do the functionalist position. While the latter position focal point on the positive facets of society that contribute to its stableness, the struggle position focuses on the negative, conflicted, and ever-changing nature of society. Unlike functionalists who defend the position quo, avoid societal alteration, and believe people cooperate to consequence societal order, struggle theoreticians challenge the position quo, promote societal alteration ( even when this means societal revolution ) , and believe rich and powerful people force societal order on the hapless and the weak. As we can see, most societies are based upon development of some groups by others. Those who own the agency of production, such as mills, land, natural stuff or capital, exploit those who work for them, who lack the agencies to bring forth things themselves . Therefore, capitalists accumulate net incomes and acquire richer and richer. Eventually workers will come to gain that they are being exoploited and will subvert capitalist economy and make a communist society. In communism the agencies of production will be communally owened, so there will be no governing category, no development and much less inequality than in capitalist economy. Today, struggle theoreticians find societal struggle between any groups in which potency for inequality exists, such as, racial, gender, spiritual, political, economic and so on. These theoreticians note that unequal groups normally have conflicting values and dockets, doing them to vie against one another. This changeless competition between groups forms the footing for the ever-changing nature of society. Critics of the struggle position point to its highly negative position of society. The theory s ultimately cardinal jobs are: it has trouble explicating the more orderly and stable elements of societal life, it neglects or downplays the cultural and symbolic facets of societal life because it emphasises on economic sciences and category, struggle theoreticians tend to presume the power differences lead to conflict but differences do non needfully arouse struggle. POST MODERNISM Post modernist positions have developed since the 1980s. Some versions see of import alterations taking topographic point in society, while other versions question the ability of conventional sociology to bring forth worthwhile theories of society. Some postmodernists argue that societal behavior is no longer shaped by factors such as category, gender, ethnicity and different types of socialization. It is now merely a inquiry of lifestyle pick. Finally, Post-Structuralism and Postmodernism, perspectives developed on the Gallic rational scene, have had considerable influence on American sociologists in recent old ages ( every bit good as on bookmans in many other Fieldss, particularly literary surveies ) . Derived from ( but mostly rejecting ) both the Marxist tradition and the plants of anthropologist Claude L A ; eacute ; vi-Strauss who developed a structuralist theory of civilization these theoretical schools seek to account for the evident decomposition of modern civilization over the past several decennaries. Among the tradition s major figures, such as Jacques Derrida and Jean Baudrillard, possibly the best known is Michel Foucault, a historian and philosopher. Tracing the historical alterations in social attitudes toward penalty, mental unwellness, and gender, among other subjects, he argued that cognition and power have become inextricably entwined. Foucault stressed the disciplinary nature of power, and argued that ( societal ) scientific discourse as one such subject may itself necessitate to be questioned. Sociologists in this tradition seek non merely to analyze the universe otherwise, but to do the production of sociological cognition, and therefore our ain situatedness within constructions of cognition and power, portion of the survey. American sociologists influenced by this tradition sometimes name their work Discourse Analysis or Cultural Studies.

James Ritty and the Invention of the First Cash Register

James Ritty and the Invention of the First Cash Register James Ritty was an inventor who owned several saloons, including one in Dayton, Ohio. In 1878, while traveling on a steamboat trip to Europe, Ritty was fascinated by an apparatus that counted how many times the ships propeller went around. He began to contemplate whether or not a similar mechanism could be made to record the cash transactions made at his saloons. Five years later, Ritty and John Birch received a patent for inventing the cash register. Ritty then invented what was nicknamed the Incorruptible Cashier or the first working  mechanical cash register. His invention also featured that familiar bell sound referred to in advertising as The Bell Heard Round the World.   While working as a saloonkeeper, Ritty also opened a small factory in Dayton to manufacture his cash registers. The company did not prosper and by 1881, Ritty became overwhelmed with the responsibilities of running two businesses and decided to sell all his interests in the cash register business. National Cash Register Company After reading a description of the cash register designed by Ritty and sold by the National Manufacturing Company, John H. Patterson decided to buy both the company and the patent. He renamed the company the National Cash Register Company in 1884. Patterson improved the cash register by adding a paper roll to record sales transactions. Later on, there were other improvements. Inventor and businessman Charles F. Kettering  designed a cash register with an electric motor in 1906 while working at the National Cash Register Company. He later worked at General Motors and invented an electric self-starter (ignition) for a Cadillac. Today, the NCR Corporation operates  as  a computer hardware, software and electronics company that makes  self-service kiosks, point-of-sale terminals, automated teller machines, processing systems, barcode scanners  and business consumables. They also provide IT maintenance support services. NCR, formerly based in Dayton, Ohio, moved to Atlanta in 2009. The headquarters was located in unincorporated  Gwinnett County, Georgia, with several locations throughout the United States and Canada.  The companys headquarters is now based in Duluth, Georgia.   The Remainder of James  Rittys Life James Ritty opened another saloon  called the Pony House in 1882. For his latest saloon, Ritty commissioned wood carvers from  Barney and Smith Car Company  to turn 5,400 pounds of  Honduras  mahogany  into a bar. The bar was 12 feet tall and 32 feet wide. The initials JR were put into the middle and the saloons interior  was built so that the left and right sections looked like the interior of a passenger railcar, featuring giant mirrors set back about a foot with curved, hand-tooled leather covered elements at the top and curved bezel mirror-encrusted sections on each side. The Pony House saloon was torn down in 1967, but the bar was saved and today is showcased as the bar at Jays Seafood in Dayton. Ritty retired from the saloon business in 1895. He died of heart trouble while at home. He is entombed with his wife Susan and his brother John at Daytons  Woodland Cemetery.

A Good Man Is Hard To Find - Foreshadowing

A Good Man Is Hard To Find Foreshadowing Essay In A Good Man is Hard to Find, by Flannery OConnor, one is struck by the unexpected violence at the end of the story. However, if one re-reads the story as second time, one will see definite signs of foreshadowing of the ending. In the course of this story, OConnor uses strong imagery to foreshadow the people and the events in this story. There are three significant times she uses this technique. They are the description of the grandmothers dress, the death of the family, and the conversation between the Misfit and the grandmother. The grandmother did not want to go to Florida; she ironically dresses in her Sunday best. She was dressed very nicely with, ;A navy blue dress with a small white dot in the print. Her collars and cuffs were white organdy trimmed with lace and at her neckline she had pinned a purple spray of cloth violets containing a sachet.; (11). A strong foreshadowing imagery can be seen in these lines. Knowing the ending of the story, the grandmothers elaborate dress symbolizes a preparation for her coffin. When a person dies, they are usually dressed in their best outfit, just like the grandmother was dressed in what seemed to be in her Sunday best. A stronger foreshadowing is when OConnor states the reason for the grandmothers beautiful dress, In case of an accident, anyone seeing her dead on the highway would know at once that she was a lady. (11). She herself predicts her own death. Unfortunately, she does not know this yet. Not only does OConnor foreshadow the grandmothers death, she foreshadows the deaths of the rest of the family. The foreshadowing of the familys death is very evident when they ;passed by a cotton field with five or six graves fenced in the middle of it, like a small island.; (12). It is not an accident that the numbers of graves ;five or six; matches the exact number of people in the car. There are 5 people and a baby. Since a baby in not exactly a full person, it is appropriate to say ;five or six.; This foreshadowing image leads into the next one: ;Look at the grave!; the grandmother said, pointing it out. ;That was the old family burying ground. That belonged to the plantation.; ;Wheres the plantation? John Wesley asked. Gone With the Wind, said grandmother. Ha. Ha. (12). The grandmothers reference to the plantation as ;gone with the wind; can be seen as an image foreshadowing and symbolism of the familys state at the end of the story. Their souls are gone with the wind in death. Finally, a foreshadowing image is shown in the Misfit and the grandmothers conversation towards the end. He says ;Does it seem right to you, lady, that one is punished a heap and another aint punished at all? (28). It is known here that the Misfit will kill the grandmother. After all she aint punished; for her crime of hypocrisy, self-centerness, and lying. The Misfit plays God and inflicts punishment where he sees necessary. In conclusion, Flannery OConnor uses strong imagery to foreshadow the ending of A Good Man is Hard to Find. She uses numerous images such as the grandmothers dress, the graveyard, and the conversation with the Misfit to foreshadow the characters future and events. Her foreshadowing images are both strong and difficult, so it does not spoil the end of the story. .

Harvard justice course MICHAEL SINDEL FREEDOM AND KANT Essay

Harvard justice course MICHAEL SINDEL FREEDOM AND KANT - Essay Example Therefore, this poses another critical question: what would you do if harming or killing the other party will elude the highest happiness? For instance, a person driving along a tunnel and realizes a farmer fall on the road just in front of his vehicle. If you move ahead, you will probably kill the farmer but if you divert, you will probably collide with a forthcoming school bus and the least number of deaths that you can cause is five. The big question is what do you and are we convinced that utilitarianism gives the right answer. It is alleged that when telling the truth, we have to strive and reduce pain and unhappiness in whatever we do as unhappiness and pains have numerous sources. Furthermore, there are instances when truth makes somebody unhappy. Thereby, if one has to lie to make the other party happy. He therefore comes up with three cases in this argument. First, is it right to tell a friend who is fond of singing while taking a shower. He posits that your friend all along has thought his voice is the best but he sings poorly. Thus, should you tell your friend the truth and ruin his confidence? Secondly, he asserts that you have just learned that a man who has been missing for a very long time is dead. What is the right step for you to do? Should you tell the family member of the sad news even if it will make them despair? Later he question if it is okay to wrong for one to lie, is there any moral duty that is attached in telling the truth however much the consequences might be? More so, do the duties confirm that we are misled by the principles of utility? Freedom in life also includes purposes for one to live which state that we should minimize happiness. The activities are not limited in terms of national rules and regulations or in private life. Therefore is it always true to be happy in the actions that we engage in? For instance, is it right to volunteer all your evenings to make the poor happy. That is, if you spare one of you evenings, the po or will become happy but their happiness will increase more if you dedicate all your evenings. Is this the right thing to do? Freedom is also governed by features of utilitarianism and its evaluation. He states that the principle of utilitarianism classifies a right action if it produces huge amount of happiness and it at the same time reduces unhappiness. For instance he questions the credibility of either building a new hospital or a new sports stadium. He concludes that the viability of building a stadium depends on the level of happiness that it creates on the fans and the level of pain it will cause on the sick. Thus, according to Bentham, the option that will yield huge balance of pleasure will be opted. Thus, happiness is like pleasure with the absence leading to happiness. Furthermore, Bentham utilitarianism counts all the pains and pleasure and all types of pain and pleasure is treated equally. Lastly, this Bentham states that one person should sacrifice for the sake of the others. Thus, we can evaluate utilitarianism by use of the aspects of happiness and pleasure. The libertarians argue that for one to be free he must be sponsored by the government in all ways. Thus, the libertarians blame the government as it is the source of threat to human rights. They think that law is the main inhibitor to the people’

The television as a product in relation to edward de Bono thinking hat Assignment

The television as a product in relation to edward de Bono thinking hat - Assignment Example The television has become an evident product in the today’s generation. The television provides communication services to individuals. The television empowers lives in many ways especially through providing important information. Through the television, we have an idea of the global happenings. Through the television information on sports, current good or bad happenings air at the comfort of our homes. Information on the weather enables people to plan for events before they happen. The television is a good source of entertainment accessed at a cheap price and at the convenience of others. Television definitely empowers individuals to live a better life through showing the progress of global happening (Hanson, 2010). Experts denounce the watching of television due to reasons such as the disengagement of people from politics, the obesity issue and the negative images of women it displays. Innovation of the television faces controversies for current years. The fears that it is on ly a matter of time before the television losses market to upcoming technological devices that enhance the outreach. Over the air, the television only has common channel. Individuals result to paying cable and satellite providers to offer extra channels. The consumer market is tired of purchasing more content most of which we are not interested (Lin & Atkin, 2007). Edward de Bono thinking tools The â€Å"Six thinking Hats† is an important powerful tool used to make decisions from different perspectives. Edward de Bono created the tools, which assists individuals to think outside from their normal thinking style. Product producers think in a very rational and positive point of view. This is the reason as to why the end up in success. Many however fail to look at the problems from a creative, intuitive, emotional or negative point of view. This means that the success is only limited to the positive thinking only. They forget that through analysis of the negative aspects creates a better approach of promoting the success of the organization. On a different view, pessimists may extensively support ideas on an emotional aspect failing to analyze decisions rationally and calmly. The thinking technique involves the white hat, red hat, black hat, yellow hat, green hat, and blue hat (Mycoted, 2011). The white hat focuses on the available data where an analysis of information available aids in learning various aspects. While thinking on the aspects, make an analysis of the elements that fill up on information missing. The â€Å"white thinking hat† analyses the past trends and extrapolate from historical data. The red hat thinking involves analyzing problems using gut reaction, emotion and intuition. The thinking involves the emotional aspects of other people involved in the thinking circle. Involving people’s logic assists in analysis of the last reasoning (Runco, 2007). The black hat of thinking involves looking at the negative aspects of the made decision. With defense and caution, analyze on the possibilities of it not working. It is important as it brings out the weak points of the decision. This enables the plan to be refined through elimination, alteration or creation of counter plans. The black hat thinking aspect enables decisions to stand tough grounds and be resilient. It assists in realizing fatal decision making before making a decision. The advantage of this thinking mechanism is that it concentrates on the negative aspects hence eliminating flaws in the decision-making process. This prepares individuals of difficulties arising from the made decision. The yellow hat of thinking concentrates of positive thinking mechanisms. It takes an optimistic point of view giving only the positive outcomes of the decision. The green hat relates to creativity. It involves developing creative solutions to a problem involving a freewheeling with minimal criticism. The blue hat represents the process control. The blue hat

The Role of Forensic Accountants Essay Example for Free

The Role of Forensic Accountants Essay PROBLEM STATEMENT In recent times, the world has witnessed the failure of large corporate organizations which has been attributed to large scale fraud by Directors in connivance with auditors. There is the case of Enro in the U.S, Parmalat in Italy and many cases in the U.K such as Polly Peek, Maxwell communications and BCCI. This development brought about in its wake the lack of public confidence in audit reports and auditing. By this many stakeholders seek redress in the court of law. In the court of law, the service of an expert witness is required in order to ascertain the true state of affair of the troubled enterprise. PURPOSE OF STUDY To examine a forensic Accountant as an expert witness in litigation and to effectively determine his role in judicial process BACKGROUND STUDY Forensic accounting is hardly a new field, but in recent years, banks, insurance companies and even police agencies have increased the use of these experts. A nationwide study conducted by Kessler International (a forensic accounting and investigative firm) showed that 39% of organizations have considered the need for a forensic accountant. The study intends to find out  how the knowledge of forensic accounting can reduce corporate fraud, mismanagement and seeking redress in the court of law. INTRODUCTION What is forensic Accounting? Forensic accounting is the practice of utilizing accounting, auditing and investigative skill to assist in legal matter and the application of specialized body of knowledge to the evidence of economic transaction and reporting suitable for the purpose of establishing accountability or valuation of administrative proceeding. In wide sense, it can be said as the integrity of accounting, auditing and investigative skill to abstain a particular result. Journal of college Teaching and Learning (2007). Vol 4, Number 9; states Forensic accounting as accounting analysis that can uncover possible fraud that is suitable for presentation in court. Such analysis will form the basis for discussion, debate and dispute resolution In my view, forensic accounting is that aspect of accounting that provides an accounting analysis that is suitable to the organization in resolving disputes that arises in the organization. Forensic accountants utilize accounting, auditing and investigative skills while conducting an investigation. These accountants are trained to look into the dispute in a number of ways. They often retain to analyze, interpret, summarize and present a complex manner which is understandable and probably supported. Also, they are often involved in various activities such as investigating and analyzing financial evidence, developing computerized application, exhibiting documents and presenting the evidence obtained. This new and ground – breaking accounting has two main areas which are: a. Litigation support and investigation b. Dispute resolution. Role of Forensic Accountants in Judicial Process A Forensic accountant is involved in the collection of document, investigating, analyzing and development of computerized application to assist in the analysis and presentation of financial evidence, communicating their findings in the form of reports, exhibits, including testifying in court as expert witness and preparing visual aids to support trial evidence. Thus, the role a forensic accountant can be said to include the following: a. Giving preliminary advice as an initial appraisal of the pleading and evidence available at the start of proceedings b. Identifying the key documents which should be made available as evidence, this is important when the forensic accountant is acting for the defense and lawyers are preparing lists of document to tender in court. c. Preparing a detailed balanced report on quantum of evidence, writing in a language readily understood by a non-accountant and dealing with all issue, irrespective of whether or not they are favourable to the client d. Briefing legal counsels on the financial and accounting aspects of the case during pre-trial preparation e. Initiate measure for introduction of environment accounting to highlight the damage done to the environment by the possible recoupment of such damages or replenishment of lost properties through environmental management continually. CONCLUSION The expert witness testimony of the forensic accountant has forced businesses to restructure, and millions of naira, dollars to be paid in damages; people have on occasions even gone to jail. The practical and in-depth analysis that a forensic accountant brings to a case helps to uncover underlying problems in business. Forensic accountants are currently in great demand, with the public quest for honesty, fairness and transparency in reporting increasing exponentially. Whatever the reasoning may be more and more forensic accountants are being called upon to use their investigative skills to seek out irregularities in their companies’ financial statements. References 1. Aderibigbe, P. (2000): The Role of forensic chartered Accountant in Nigeria. July, 2000. 2. Crumbley H. (2003): Forensic and Investigative Accounting; CCH Publishing 3. Financial Restatements, General Accounting Office Report, 2002 4. Kessler International study; (2002) Forensic accountants needed as economy worsens. Press release 5. Oremade, T. (1988): Auditing and Investigations, Lagos; West Africa Books Publishers Limited.

Aphrodite Invocation :: essays research papers

Oh Muse! With visions Thou hast filled my soul, With visions overpowering, for Thou Hast shown me Golden Aphrodite; now The blaze emboldens me; like coal To brighter burning fanned by Breath Divine, The Cyprian enflameth me with words, Seductive sounds, which swiftly would entwine My soul, as lime-twigs trap unwary birds. An Ancient Poet* spake the truth; he said When Cypris cometh swift, high-spirited Just like a Hero -- irresistible Her onslaught, nor may anyone annul Her summons; flouting Her is arrogance, A failure to respect the difference `Tween Gods and Mortals; nor can even They Resist Her Power. She is held at bay By only three: Athena, Bright-Eyed Maid, And Artemis, who haunts both wood and glade, And Hestia reject the Paphian's Dove, For They alone deny delights of Love. The Cyprian's summons is a challenge. Be Thou brave and answer it, for verily A God hath willed it; surely stinging grief Will be refusal's price, so seek relief, Conforming to the Paphian's Will. So spake the Poet Truths he would instill. Far-shining Aphrodite, hear our prayer! Thou Laughter-loving Lady, Paphian, Well-girded, Golden, Sea-born, Cyprian, Companion, Tender-hearted, or howe'er It pleaseth Thee to be addressed, attend, We ask, our words of praise, and send Thy Grace, because Thou art the source of all That's charming, graceful, all that doth enthrall In word or deed, in action, figure, face. For Thine is the allure that doth enlace Our hearts as one, for as the charmed is bound, So also is the charmer quickly found Surrendering, with yearning undisguised, The compromiser gladly compromised! But irresistible is even this, Seducer falling to seduction; bliss Repaid is twofold bliss, drawing tight The bonds about them both, in shared delight. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Now I call in ancient sounds: Aphrodite Khrusostephane Glukumeilikh' O he Kalligloute Thea Pandeme Hetaira su Morpho, ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Or whatever name doth please Thee, Hear! If ever I've appeased Thee, Now attend my prayer beseeching, See my hands toward Thee reaching, Know my love is everlasting! Lady, grant the gift I'm asking And appear before us, whether Now sojourning deep in Nether Regions with the Queen of Hades, Or in Heaven with Thy Ladies, Founts of all allure, the Graces, Fair Their form and fair Their faces! I request Thee, leave Thy station! Grant to us a visitation! Show to us Thy face delightful! Let us worship Thee as rightful, Shapely form that's Thine adoring! Hear our voices now upsoaring To the Heavens from our chorus! Please, we ask Thee, stand before us! Queen of Twilight, Queen of Morning! Deeds just done or now aborning Are Thy favorites; prized the clever Warrior of the bold endeavor! Dear to Thee the Sun that's rising, Thou reward for enterprising Souls, Thou prize of tasks completed, Thou in rivalry entreated To bestow Thy grace, advising, Bold advances galvanizing! Such Thy gift and such Thy favor,

Recording, analysing and using HR information Review Essay

Contents Page One – Title of briefing note Page Two – Contents page Page Three – Two reasons why the organisation needs to collect HR data Page Four – Two types of data that is collected within the organisation and how each supports HR practices Page Five – A description of two methods of storing records and the benefits Page Six – Limitations Act 1980 relating to the recording, storage and accessibility of HR data and the Data protection Act 1998 relating to the recording, storage and accessibility of HR data Page Seven – Reference list † HR records and their retention are extremely complex and constantly changing areas requiring companies to have document retention policies and monitoring programmes.† (CIPD Website) Two reasons why the organisation needs to collect HR data To comply with legislative and regulatory requirements – Such as minimum wage, hours of work based on the working time directive, tax and national insurance purposes. Organisational Records – Such as recruitment and selection records, absence, staff turnover records, learning and development records. Provides information affecting the state of an organisation. Two types of data that is collected within the organisation and how it supports HR practices Organisational records – enables an organisation to make informed decisions,  these types of records are essential to monitor absence levels and recruit when necessary, to ensure productivity is effective and ensure that staff are maintaining a high level of efficiency through learning and development activities. Statutory regulation – Ensures practices are fair and consistent, and the treatment of employees can be monitored and standardised for everyone, this also incorporates the health and safety of employees. The types of records held will be dependant on the statutory regulations the organisations need to monitor. â€Å"ACAS suggests Legislative changes, such as the Working Time Regulations, may trigger organisational changes. Whatever the reason for change, good personnel records are key, providing the data for analysing what needs to be put into place.† (ACAS Personnel data and record keeping booklet 2011) Two methods of storing records and the benefits of each â€Å"ACAS suggests all organisations regardless of size need to keep accurate records of there employees. Therefore thought should be given by an organisation on how this data should be stored, and the type of system that is most suitable to the organisation.† (ACAS Personnel data and record keeping booklet 2011) The most popular systems chosen in most organisation’s is either a computerised or a manual system for storage. Computerised systems There are many systems that can be chosen dependant on the cost and how in-depth the analysis is needed to be carried out in the organisation. A computerised system enables trends to be easily collated and identified. It can be convenient and easy to obtain and sort information. Can often be a more secure way to retain data by having different levels of security based upon the individuals need for the information stored. Manual systems While computerised systems could be costly manual systems are cheaper to implement. Manual systems are reliable in that there isn’t a chance a manual system can crash unlike a computer system, which could also fail to hackers. Files are easily accessible and doesn’t require a computer to be turned on. UK legislation’s to be considered relating to the recording, storage and accessibility of HR data Limitation Act 1980 Is where the organisation’s documents may be relevant to a contractual claim, it is recommended by the CIPD fact sheet on retention that these be retained for at least the corresponding 6-year limitation period. This is based on the 6-year time limit within which legal proceedings must be commenced as laid down by the Limitation Act 1980 by issuing a claim form. Data Protection Act 1998 The Data Protection Act 1998 replaces the 1984 Data Protection Act. The particular points to note in the 1998 Act are: Personal data shall be adequate, relevant and not excessive in relation to the purposes for which it is processed Includes information held in filing systems regardless of date location (manual, paper-based, and computerise Personal data shall be obtained only for lawful purposes, and shall not be processed in any manner incompatible with this Personal data shall be kept for no longer than is necessary for the purposes for which it is processed Personal data shall be subject to appropriate technical and organisational measures to protect against unauthorised or unlawful processing and accidental loss, destruction or damage Personal data shall not be transferred to a country or territory outside the European Economic Area unless that country or territory ensures an adequate level of data protection. Reference list CIPD (July 2013) fact sheet on retention of documents www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/factsheets/retention-hr-records.aspx 2) ACAS (July 2011) Personnel data and record keeping booklet http://m.acas.org.uk/index.aspx?articleid=717 3) ACAS (July 2011) Personnel data and record keeping booklet http://m.acas.org.uk/index.aspx?articleid=717